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Second, the contribution of non-neuronal cells (e.g., astrocytes, microglia) expressing GPR68 to ferroptosis regulation remains unaddressed

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Conversely, expression of GPD2 and LEPROTL1, genes linked to metabolic stress and reduced leptin sensitivity, was increased (Segerstolpe et al., 2016)

In the Sprague-Dawley rat model, PTER improves cholinergic transmission due to the decrease in the activity of acetylcholinesterase and increases the action of ATPases (Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ ), which is indicative of the maintenance of the cell membrane potential (Naik et al., 2017)

MOTS-c has been studied in preclinical research models for its interactions with AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) signaling pathways, glucose metabolism regulation, and insulin sensitivity mechanisms, making it a research tool of particular interest to investigators studying mitochondrial biology, metabolic signaling, and cellular energetics

Such linear connectivity fails to account for the three-dimensional spatial organization critical to protein function 17