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M1 macrophages secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-, which trigger further inflammatory responses in the synovium and contribute to cartilage destruction and osteophyte formation, thus exacerbating OA progression (Marchev et al., 2017

doi:10.1021/es302241v

The needle can be inserted at a 90-degree angle (straight in, somewhat like a dart) or at a 45-degree angle

Evidence comparison: GHK-Cu has a substantially larger body of published research, spanning from Pickart's original 1973 isolation through hundreds of subsequent studies

Structure GSTs consist of the following three superfamilies: cytoplasmic (cGSTs), mitochondrial (GSTs), and microsomal (membrane-associated proteins in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism [MAPEG])

References Richie, J.P., Nichenametla, S., Neidig, W., Calcagnotto, A., Haley, J.S., Schell, T.D., and Muscat, J.E