Glutathione primarily works intracellularly, while astaxanthin provides protection at the cell membrane level
For instance, single nucleus sequencing of the entorhinal cortex of the hippocampus from AD brains reveals a repression of ApoE expression in astrocytic subpopulations and also oligodendrocyte precursor cells, but an increase in microglial expression (Grubman et al., 2019)
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Subsequently, innate immune cells in the brain (microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendroglia) are activated in response to inflammatory stimuli including the production of cytokines, chemokines, and secondary inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins (77)